Agriculture

This study assessed the involvement of rural children in farming activities in Odeda local government area of Ogun state. Interview schedules were used to obtain information from 80 children from the study area. The study revealed that the mean age of the respondents is 14 years with more than half (55%) between 13 and 15 years. Majority (92.5%) of the children are schooling. Also, about three out of every four children (76.25%) are involved in about 13 farming activities. Boys are more involved at a higher level in farming activities than girls. Chi-square analyses revealed that there is significant difference at p<0.05 in male/female involvement in land clearing (?² = 13.265), ridging (?² = 19.163), planting (?² = 23.474), fertilizer application (?² = 9.172), staking (?² = 10.889), harvesting (?² = 26.000), transporting (?² = 11.607) and marketing (?² = 9.053). It can further be deduced from the study that farming in the study area by the children cannot be regarded as child labour as most of their involvement is done on weekends. The study concluded that children should be involved in farming at a low to medium level depending on age as this serves as means through which a child can acquire basic survival skills that will be needed for the child’s personal development and, in the long run, resulting in sustainable national development.

Determination of pesticide residues in food is very essential in human health and it is becoming a major priority in the cocoa value chain. Hence, organophosphorous pesticide residues in dried cocoa beans from Ondo and Osun States, Nigeria were determined using Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) and the detected levels of these residues were compared with the European Union Maximum Residue Levels (EU MRLs). Samples were milled separately and 10 g milled samples were weighed into 40 ml Dichloromethane (DCM) in a beaker and later sonicated. The extracts were subjected to gel permeation chromatography to separate lipids from the extracts, which were later subjected to fractionation. Among the organophosphous pesticide residues detected in the samples from the states were dichlorvos, diazion, phosphamidon, pirimiphos-methyl, chlorpyrifos, isofenphos and carbofenothion with their being levels higher than EU MRLs, suggesting that the produce were not safe for human consumption and the residues could pose some health risk to the consumers.

Pollution of ground water with heavy metals from industrial activities has caused a major threat to human life exposing man to series of diseases, crippling disability and death. This study was carried out to determine the concentration of heavy metals leaching into groundwater from the industrial activities and to assess their long term effect on life of the people and the resultant aquifer. The study was carried out at 10 different locations which are all located in Ikeja industrial areas. The water samples collected were subjected to physical, chemical, heavy metal and bacteriological analysis in order to determine their level of pollution. Samples were prepared according to the standard methods using atomic absorption spectrophotometry for heavy metals determination. The result of the analysis shows that heavy metals in water samples had an average pH mean value of 5.20 indicating the acidity of the water sampled, while the average electrical conductivity, temperature and total acidity of were 0.64µs/cm 29.70oC and 29.60 respectively. The average mean concentration of the chemical and heavy metals were 0.132 mg/l, 0.040 mg/l, 0.279 mg/l, 0.148 mg/l, 0.026 mg/l, 0.0055 mg/l, 0.00266 mg/l and 0.0097 mg/l for calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron, cadmium, lead, and chromium respectively. The parameters analysed were at varying concentrations in the groundwater with parameters such as nitrate, phosphate, and pH exceeding the World Health Organization (W.H.O) standard, it was observed that the sample collected from Neimeth pharmaceuticals exceeded the permissible level for iron and lead having the value of 0.0391mg/l and 0.0627mg/l, while most of the water samples analysed falls within the permissible limit in accordance with the WHO standards. Adequate care must be taken for further prevention and handling of chemical discharges from industries. The need for the treatment of the groundwater and control of human activities in the area to prevent further contamination must also be put be in place.

Brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) is an important solanaceous crop of tropics and sub tropics. An extensive survey of brinjal growers was carried to know the constraints in brinjal cultivation. The lack of suitable HYVs, technical knowhow, quality irrigation water and plant protection was the four most important factors which were found to be responsible for low productivity. To fulfil this gap a FLD (front line demonstrations) was designed during 2012-2013 on Brinjal cv. Gujarat Hybrid Brinjal-1 at ten selected farmer’s field. The main objective of FLD was to popularize good agriculture practices (GAP) among the farmers. The yield of Brinjal cv. GHB-1 was recorded 270.80q/ha from demonstration plots as compared to local check (195.50qt/ha). The percentage increase in yield over local check was demonstrated in variety GHB-1 (38.51). The highest gross return, net return and cost benefit ratio were recorded Rs. 1, 02,300 /ha, Rs. 60,100/ha and 2.42 as compared to local check respectively. The “mean knowledge score” of farmers was increased significantly by 32.42% after implementation of frontline demonstrations.

The objective of the study was assessment and mapping of the community villages in order to rank degree of vulnerabilities to climate change. On sensitivity to vulnerability, the majority of the respondents indicated that it was high (59.6%), medium (16.3%) and low (20.8%).of which on response to exposure to vulnerability, the respondents who indicated high (61.7%), medium (24.2% and low (11.3%).On vulnerabilities in response to adaptive capacity to vulnerability, was high (3.3%), medium (12.5%) and low (81.3%).This study demonstrated that participatory approach of addressing vulnerability to climate change which involved all stakeholders is effective in this dry forested pastoral ecosystem.

Field evaluation to measuring combine losses was conducted typically on seed corn field because of high economic importance of seed corn in Iran. Because seed corn is alive, harvesting operation should be done precisely with fewer losses. For this purpose data were collected and analyzed for different cylinder and ground speeds. Pre-harvest, gathering, and processing losses were measured. The results showed the total harvesting loss was 9.30% which combine loss was almost 8.56% with feeding rate of 2.48 kg ears per second. The highest losses occur in processing (threshing) (5.39%) because of elimination all cracked seeds (any crack in seeds decrease the seed generation power). The effect of travel speed was significant for gathering and threshing (quality) losses while cylinder speed had a significant effect on threshing (quality and quantity) losses. The lowest total combine loss (7.60%) was measured at 3 km h-1 ground speed with 400 rpm cylinder speed and the highest value (7.19%) belonged to 5 km h-1 ground speed with 600 rpm cylinder speed. Energy consumption during harvesting seed corn was calculated 1.8 GJ ha-1 which the diesel fuel input was the highest energy consumer with almost 1.2 GJ ha-1 that was 70% of total energy use.

A well sorted municipal solid waste which was composted and co-composted with other materials such as dewatered faecal sludge and ammonium sulphate as enrichment were used in the amendment of a 15 kg soil contained in 147 (43.2 x 35.6 cm) polythene bags for two cropping seasons. Impact of the dewatered faecal sludge on the speciation of heavy metals, Cu, Zn, Pb and Cd in the co-compost (Co), enriched co-compost (Eco) and garden soils (S) were evaluated. The results of the analysis reveal Co and Eco have about 50 % of Cu, 75 – 80 % of Zn and 80 – 85 % Cd highly bound organically. Lead was 60 % bound to organic fraction in Co and Eco, same as the other composts. The amended soils had 30 – 50 % Cu and 30 % Zn organically bound as the dominant fraction. Lead shifted and was 55 – 65 % dominant in the residual fraction whiles Cd was below detection.

A study is conducted to investigate the effects of socio economic factors on agricultural land use in Malaysia. Relevant socio – economic variables (from 1965 to 2007) were aggregated from the databases of various international and national agencies. These data include agricultural and non agricultural land uses, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) & Gross National Product (GNI); labour force, population age distribution, numbers of cars per 1000 people; road density. GDP/capita & GNI/capita, labour efficiencies ie (ha/worker in agricultural subsectors), percentage of male and female in the agricultural labour force and % change in outputs of major crops were derived from relevant data. Data were then subjected to multiple linear regression analysis using SPSS version 18. Findings indicated that, relevant socio – economic factors in agricultural land use in Malaysia are available workforce of the population, percentage of workers engaged in plantation farming, female workforce in agriculture, farm size and the workers condition of service in non - agricultural sector. This study has revealed that labour supply and their conditions of service are major factors in agricultural land use. This study further underscores the need for technology – driven - agricultural practices in the face of better posited industries competing for available labour.

This paper was prepared to estimate the current and projected relationship between climate change (rainfall) and variability and the productivity of sorghum under rainfed mechanized farming system in Gadarif State. The study ultilized secondary data covering the period 1940-2014. The data analyzed using descriptive analysis, Bias Correction and Spatial Downscaling (BCSD) and Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs). The most important results revealed that an increasing trend of rainfall indicating the evidence of existance of climate change in the State. The study also found that the dry rainfall years affect the productivity of sorghum by reducing it by 4.9 kg/feddan/year and that floody rainfall years leads to decreasing the productivity by 11.3 kg/feddan/year, while the productivity was decreasing by 3.39 kg/feddan/year in normal rainfall years. As with respect the projection to future rainfall and yield, two scenarios based on greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere for the period 2020-2100 were used. The best scenario assumed an RCP of 2.6 and the worst one assumed an RCP of 8.5 .The results of best scenario predicted an expected decrease rainfall by 0.865 mm/year and decrease in crop yield at rate of 1.121 kg/fed/year in case of maximum temperature; and at rate of 0.618 kg/fed/year in case of minimum temperature. The result of the worst scenario predicted an expected decrease in rainfall at the rate of 0.554 mm/year with consequent decline in crop productivity at a rate of 5.235 kg/fed/year in case of maximum temperature and at a rate of 4.844 kg/fed/year in case of minimum temperature. The effect of increase greenhouse gas concentration in future leads to decrease rainfall and decrease yield of sorghum in Gadarif State. 

The combine performance characteristics are related to threshing ability, the minimum amount of loss and fuel consumption. Loss is the most important of these factors. Material threshing is one of processes which have more effect on combine performance. Threshing efficiency has been inversely associated with threshing loss. It is desired to maximize threshing efficiency in threshing mechanism, because it will decrease the load of separation and cleaning mechanisms, which lead to reduction of separation system losses. Stem height, feed rate, threshing clearance ratio and rotational speed of threshing cylinder are operation parameters, which are used in combine design and its performance evaluating. In order to evaluate effect of these parameters on threshing material, experiments were conducted in 4×3×3 factorial pattern with Randomize Blocks design. Material threshing was considered as a dependent variable. These experiments were done on 68’s Sahand combine harvester. Results were analyzed in Neurosolutions 5.0 software. Multilayer Perceptron with four inputs and one output, with a different number of neurons in hidden layer, was used to estimate the amount of material threshing. Results showed that a network with 21 neurons in hidden layer had minimum MSE with R2=0.9. Furthermore, results showed that the amount of material threshing had dependent on stem height, threshing clearance ratio, speed of threshing cylinder and feed rate, respectively. Material threshing was increased with reduction in stem height, feed rate, threshing clearance ratio and speed up of threshing cylinder.

In this study a mathematical Analysis is used to estimate the energy efficiencies of cucumber producers based on eight energy inputs including human labor, diesel fuel, machinery, fertilizers, chemicals, water for irrigation, electricity and seed energy and single output of cucumber production. Data were collected using face-to-face surveys from 20 greenhouses in Isfahan province of Iran. Energy indices, technical, pure technical and scale efficiencies were calculated by using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) approach for 20 cucumber greenhouses. Total energy input and output were calculated as 163994 MJha-1 and 62496 MJha-1, respectively, whereas diesel fuel consumption with 45.15% was the highestlevel between energy inputs. Energy output-input ratio, energy productivity and net energy gain were 0.38, 0.47 kg MJ?1, -101498MJ ha?1, respectively. Results showed that DEA approach was a very useful tool for benchmarking and improving the energy efficiency in agricultural production. The use of this methodology provides an important knowledge about the wasteful uses of energy.

Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is used with Arc-Hydro tool of Arc-GIS to described flow direction, flow accumulation, streams orders and basins in the republic of Iraq. The Republic of Iraq is in southwest Asia between latitudes 29° 5' and 37° 22' N and longitudes 38° 45' and 48° 45' E; it forms the eastern frontier of the Arab countries. Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Jordan, Syria and the Kingdom of Saudi to the west, and the Arabian Gulf, Kuwait and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to the south, border it (see Figure 1). Its unique environmental, biological and social features, which are unlike anywhere else in the Arabian Peninsula, characterize the country. It has a total area of 438 317 km2. The results referred to there are five stream orders and two main basins in the study area.

The test on  in vitro antagonistic acitivity in dual culture showed significance reduction in the radical growth of Rhizoctonia bataticola and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum  over control (90 mm colony diameter) and in the field trial study seed treatment with strains of Pseudomonas fluorescence significantly reduced the disease incidence of dry root rot and stem rot  in all  treatments  in comparison to uninoculated control, however Pseudomonas fluorescence strains BHUPf₄ was found more effective in mycelial growth reduction as well as disease reduction of both fungal pathogen namely Rhizoctonia bataticola and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum this is followed by strains BHUP₅, BHUP₆ and BHUPsb.

The cultivation of fresh tomatoes at Tono irrigation scheme by mostly the lowly educated youth is bedevilled by so many challenges. However, even though the full cost of producing fresh tomato at Tono appear to be increasing rapidly over the years under review, the venture is still economically beneficial but with decreasing profitability by using conventional statistics. The average return on investment for 2006 dry season was 4.22 while that for 2010 dry season was 2.34. Thus, there was a general decline in profits over the years. Time series analysis was therefore, carried out to forecast for the next five years which confirmed the declining profits nature of the industry. It was realised that, various interventions from government and policy markers were needed to arrest the appalling situation and make the industry one of the keys to alleviating the chronic poverty in the Upper East Region of Ghana.

This study aims to predict spatial distribution of deforestation and detects factors influencing forest degradation of Northern forests of Ilam province. For this purpose, effects of six factors including distance from road and settlement areas, forest fragmentation index, elevation, slope and distance from the forest edge on the forest deforestation are studied. In order to evaluate the changes in forest, images related to TM1988, ETM+2001 and ETM+2007 are processed and classified. There are two classes as, forest and non-forest in order to assess deforestation factors. The logistic regression method is used for modeling and estimating the spatial distribution of deforestation. The results show that about 19,294 ha from forest areas are deforested in the 19 years. Modeling results also indicate that more deforestation occurred in the fragmented forest cover and in the areas of proximity to forest/non forest edge. Furthermore, slope and distance from road and settlement areas had negative relationships with deforestation rates. Meanwhile, deforestation rate is decreased with increase in elevation. Finally, a simple spatial model is presented that is able to predict the location of deforestation by using logistic regression. The validation was also tested using ROC approach which was found to be 0.96.

The knowledge of the women farmers on renewability potential of natural resources are critical determinants of the attitude and farmland conservation measures adopted to achieve a sustainable use. This study was carried out in Ekiti state, Nigeria to reveal the socio-economic characteristics of women farmers and their attitude towards sustainable farmland management practices in food crop production. Multistage sampling technique was adopted in selecting a total of 345 women farmers drawn from eight (8) Local Government Area of the state. Data were collected on socio-economic characteristics and attitude towards farm land management practices. The data were t analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The results revealed that majority (92.8%) of women farmers fell between the age categories of 31 -55 years and most of the farmers (69.5%) were married. Majority of the farmers inherited their farmland and majorly practiced crop rotation system. The correlation analysis revealed that there was a strong positive correlation (r=0.67, P< 0.05) between the attitude score and farmland management practices adopted by the women farmers, there is neutral attitude towards sustainable farm land management practices among women farmers in the study area. This study therefore recommend increase in awareness campaigns on farmland fertility conservation through appropriate management practices and women farmers should be given opportunity to have access to land resources like male counterpart which could be possible through adequate policy formulation on agriculture.

Greenhouse farming in Kenya is becoming a lucrative investment as well as a means of improving food production in marginal environments. The Greenhouse is intended to regulate external conditions including soil moisture content suitable to different types of crops. Many farmers use timers to control irrigation, but timers do not account to day to day changes in plant use. The aim of this study was to analyze the challenges faced in regulation of soil moisture content in greenhouses; The study was guided by Mamdani Fuzzy Logic Theory that uses Nested “IF THEN RULES”. Preliminary data was collected through Observation and Interview schedules. The population of the study comprises five greenhouse farmers and four field officers. Experimental Research Methodology was applied. The study found out that most small scale farmers had a lot of difficulties in determining and controlling soil moisture content. Apart from having a person on site at the right time to control the turning on and off of the water taps, they also mention the following as being the prevalent challenges: Lack of appropriate equipment to measure, monitor and regulate the soil moisture content, inability to determine the correct or the optimum moisture level for a particular crop, inability to determine water holding capacity of a specific type of soil in the greenhouse for a particular crop, inability to measure the nutrient concentration at a given soil moisture content and its uptake by the crop, Source of power to the Greenhouse and Lack of enough funds to buy the equipment.

The simple random sampling technique was employed in selecting 62 farmers drawn from the sampling frame obtained from the list of Agricultural Development Programme (ADP) contact farmers in the four Local Governments Areas (LGAs) of Egbedore, Olorunda, Ede South and Ife Central, which made up the study area. The main instrument for collecting the primary data was structured questionnaire. It is evident from the result is that an average total cost of N371486.35 was incurred per annum by fish farmers while gross revenue of N791242.52 was realized with a gross margin of N 574314 and a profit of N 419756.17. The rate of return on investment of 0.58 implies that for every one naira invested in Fish production by farmers, a return of N1.5 and a profit of 58k were obtained. The multiple regression result revealed that fish output was significantly determined by pond size, labour used, cost of feeds, cost of lime and cost of fingerlings. The coefficient of determination indicates that 52.2% of the variation in the value of fish output was explained by pond size, quantity of labour used, cost of feed, cost of lime and cost of fingerlings. The study concluded that fish production in the study area is economically rewarding and profitable.

This study examines the medicinal uses and marketing of desert date in Kaduna North Local Government Area of Kaduna State. A total of one hundred marketers were randomly selected among the traders in the markets located in the study area. Information on the traditional uses of the plant was equally gathered from the respondents using a well structured questionnaire with personal interview. Eighty-eight (88%) of the total questionnaires were successfully utilized for the analysis. Economic tools such as Gross Margin (GM) and Marketing Efficiency (ME) were used to determine the profitability of Balanite aegyptiaca (desert date) marketing while the socio-economic characteristics of the traders and uses of the plant were analysed using simple descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentage. The business is male-dominant and the uses of the plant are basically for medicinal purposes in the treatment of ailment such as schistosomiasis, dizziness/body weakness, stomach upset/pain, ulcer, and as food. Plant parts used include the leaf, root, seed and fruit. Gross Marketing Margin was calculated to be N140, 856.40, Net Marketing Margin was N137, 256.94 while the Marketing Efficiency (ME) was calculated to be 39.13%.

Beekeeping is a very longstanding practice in the farming communities of the Tigray region and it plays a significant role as a source of additional cash income which is also an integral part in the smallholder farming system of the region. The overall objective of the study was to analyze honey marketing opportunities and challenges in the study area. A total of 135 beekeepers were proportionately and randomly selected from each study districts. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics using SPSS ver.16. According to the data analysis, the mean price of honey is birr 63.45 (September to November), 61.77 (December to February), 62.20 (March to May) and 59.69 (June to August) and most of the respondents (62.5%) sold their honey at district market while the rest sold at farm gate, kebelle market, other kebelles’/districts’ market and regional market. The honey marketing system of the study area has been reported to have faced with some challenging factors such as poor extension services related to honey marketing (96.6%), absence of local cooperatives that can activity participate in the honey marketing (89.8%), and limitation in participation of wholesalers and processors in the marketing system of honey are the main among the others. Despite these limitations, there are many opportunities for honey marketing in the study area; stable honey price, accesses to market information, access to nearby market and accesses to credit in relation to honey marketing, existence of good market infrastructure particularly, road and mobile networks, and presence of credit institutes such as Dedebit Credit and Saving Institution (DCSI) in the research location.

Present study focused on detection of Aspergillus and Curvularia species from contaminated peri-urban agricultural area of Kasur by soil serial dilution method. Genetic variability among the fungi was determined by RAPD technique. Genomic DNA was extracted and amplified with 8 RAPD markers which were previously designed for Aspergillus species. Amplified products of DNA were analyzed electrophoretically and fragments ranging in 250-10000bp were generated. Clustering analysis was accomplished and a significant genetic relation was found in the isolates of these two genera which would be helpful in devising management approaches appropriate to bioremediation of contaminated soils.

In order to get the knowledge easily and quickly for the new countryside to meet the requests on agriculture development by the advanced science and technology, emphasis on the regional agriculture. We put forward an integrated platform model that provide the demonstration and query on regional agriculture information. The solution is to set up the regional multimedia system based on the comprehensive agriculture information system, meanwhile, considering the current situations, including the network equipments and information system operations. After the analysis and design of the system function and structure, we introduce the operation and the realization of models in detail. It can achieve the general data by the demonstration system easily and the especially data by the query system, also the immediate data exchanging and sharing by the information exchange platform.

An innovative approach incorporated to predict large quantity of rose water extraction through distillation process in a solar still under the climatic conditions of Coimbatore, India (11?.00 N, 77 ? E). The rose water extraction to utilize the process is performed to increase the large yield rate by coupling the still with the concentrating assembly. The hourly rose essence yield from the still and efficiency are recorded. In normal evaporation process of the still requires more time to evaporate the content in the still which spends 1½ hour for evaporation. But in this type of still concentrator plays a major role for evaporating the content within a short duration of time. It requires only 10 minutes for evaporation. Thus this type of still is very much support to extract the rose essence without any loss of smell. The conventional solar still loses its smell even before the evaporation process.

Worldwide, sugarcane is the major raw material used in the production of domestic sugar. It accounts for 80% of the sugar consumed. Kakamega and Bungoma Counties account for about 80% of the locally processed sugar. There is evidence of increased investment in the industry as characterized by growth in the number of millers across the country. Information about this growth and challenges on sugarcane transportation is scanty to enable policy makers in making informed decisions on improving efficiency in the sub sector. The study is guided by the objective to evaluate the characteristics of sugarcane transportation in western Kenya sugar belt region. Descriptive survey was carried out to achieve the study objective. The study tool was a pretested orally administered structured questionnaire with questions testing the following variables: characteristics of sugarcane transportation, prevalent livelihoods and strategies that can improve livelihoods. The study involved 384 respondents. Purposive, stratified and simple random sampling were used in determining respondents that were used in the study. Data was analysed using Excel and Statistical Package for Social Scientists (a computer programmes). Presentation was done in tables, graphs and pie charts. Research questions were subjected to Pearson Correlation and Regression coefficients to ascertain their significance. The study revealed that sugarcane transportation may have resulted in wide road network (32%) and improved access to the farms (68%). Tractors is the main means of transportation for sugarcane (67%) in the region. In conclusion, most of the cane growing farms are owned and operated by individual families. It was established that transportation cost was high in the region, which was attributed to poor road networks and frustration from millers. The study recommends improvements on the state of road network; there is need for creating right institutions and mechanisms to carry out road maintenance in the sugar belts of Kenya. The study recommends future research on poor road networks traversing western region sugar belts.

The objectives of this study were to determine the energy consumption and evaluation of relationship between inputs and output for wheat production in Shahrkord region, Iran. For this propose data were collected from 60 wheat farms using a face to face questionnaire. The results revealed that total energy input for wheat production was found to be 31188.25 MJ ha-1 that the share of non-renewable energy form (89%) was more than renewable energy form (11%).Electricity has the highest share by 38.25% followed by total fertilizers and diesel fuel. Energy use efficiency, energy productivity, and net energy were 3.03, 0.21 kg MJ-1, and 65012.08 MJ ha-1, respectively. The regression results revealed that the contribution of energy inputs on crop yield (except for diesel fuelenergies) was significant. Machinery energy was the most significant input (0.798) which affects the output level.It indicates that a 1% increase in the energy machinery input led to 0.798% increase in yield in these circumstances. The results also showed the impacts of indirect and renewable energy on yield are negative. It was concluded that additional use of machinery, and increasing mechanization level, would result more yield in the area.

Maize (TZSR-Y variety) sown at 75x25 cm and leaf amaranth (NH Ac 23) seed rates at 2, 4 and 6 kg.ha^-1 drilled in rows 30 cm apart were grown sole and as intercrops in four replications and laid out in randomized complete block design during the rainy season of 2009 and 2010 on the Teaching and Research Farm, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. Amaranth yield was determined as weight of >15 cm tall plants uprooted weekly from one month old for four harvests; weight of shoots repeatedly cut at 15 cm fortnightly; and weight of seeds from mature inflorescences after threshing. Maize cobs were harvested dry, shelled, and sun-dried and weighed. Cropping system had no significant effect on leaf amaranth yield obtained by uprooting and repeated cutting but seed yield was higher in sole cropping in 2009. Yield obtained by uprooting and repeated cutting and seed yield increased with amaranth seed rate. In sole and intercropping systems, optimum marketable amaranth yields were obtained at 4 and 6 kg.ha^-1 by uprooting and 2 and 4 kg.ha^-1 by repeated cutting.  Intercropping slightly depressed maize grain yield and the reduction was higher as amaranth seed rate increased. Land Equivalent Ratio exceeded 1.0 in all intercropping systems and was highest at 6 and 4 kg.ha^-1 seed rate for marketable yield and seed yield, respectively at the established maize population.

This study was conducted to evaluation of allopathic effects of Hoary Cress tissues aqueous extract on growth of barley seedlings in split plot experiment in CRD design with 3 replications. Main plot included root, stem, leaf and flower extract and sub plot included extract concentration (0, 2, 4 and 8%) of Hoary Cress. After one week, some properties evaluated such as radicle and plumule length, radicle and plumule fresh weight, radicle and plumule dry weight.Data analysis was done using SAS software and mean comparison was done by Duncan test at the 5% level. Studied traits reduced by the increase of extract concentration, flower extract specially. So, application of 8% aqueous extract had highest significant effects on growth traits of barley seedling.

This paper examines agroforestry as a panacea to food insecurity in Nigeria. Agroforestry is defined as a combination of agriculture and forestry, resulting in better management of natural resources and sustainable use of land. It is the planting of trees among crops so as to help sustain environments and livelihoods. The practice of agroforestry is a dynamic, ecologically based, natural resources management system that, through the integration of trees on farms and in the agricultural landscape, diversifies and sustains production for increased social, economic and environmental benefits for land users at all levels. It has some characteristic features which could either be intentional or interactive. Intentional agroforestry is designing and managing combinations for a planned result. Intentional agroforestry can be intensive or integrated. In practice of intensive agroforestry, components are managed to maintain production and environmental benefits. Integrated agroforestry is a blend of agriculture, forestry and environmental science. Interactive agroforestry is designed to minimize negative and maximize positive interactions between trees, other crops, livestock and humans. The goal is to enhance the production of more than one component at a time while providing for environmental benefits. The paper discusses some characteristic features of agroforestry as either intentional or interactive. Silvopastoral, agrisilviculture and agrisilvopastoral are discussed as types of agroforestry systems while alley cropping, forest farming, riparian buffer strips and windbreaks or shelterbelts are described as the most common or popular agroforestry practices. Some limitations to agroforestry practices are also mentioned in the paper.

Pistachio is one of the most important export and strategic agricultural product in the word and comprehensive study on its agro-ecological requirements can lead to find out the suitable areas for producing pistachio as well as addressing the best management practices to achieve the sustainability. This paper tries to review agro-ecological requirements (climate, soil and site) for pistachio after describing the role and the limitation levels of the climatic, landscape and soil properties that influencing on the yield and quality of the pistachio trees and their nuts, respectively.

Agriculture is the most beautiful and easy profession in the world; yet marked by drudgery and exploitations. It is a beauty to behold nature: plants, animals, insects, air, water, soil, rock, food, medicine, drugs. It is prestigious and honourable to have food on the table: morning, afternoon and evening. It is very appetizing to have various food stuff and ingredients. Food is always delicious if not abused. A well fed man is a happy man. A hungry man is an angry and sad man. Food! Food! Food everywhere; yet they are unavailable and unaffordable. Something must be wrong: with ourselves or how we embrace agriculture. But nothing is wrong with agriculture; except where we checkmate and abuse nature, in the name of agricultural revolution and increased food production. This paper reviews agriculture in peril. Happy reading.

Good agricultural practices (GAP) are Practices that address environmental, economic and social sustainability for on-farm processes and result in safe and quality food and non-food agricultural products. In simple language, GAP stands on four pillars (economic viability, environmental sustainability, social acceptability and food safety and quality). In recent years, the concept of GAP has evolved to address the concerns of different stakeholders about food production and security, food safety and quality, and the environmental sustainability of agriculture. These stakeholders include governments, food retailing industries, farmers and consumers who seek to meet specific objectives of food safety, food production, production efficiency, livelihood and environmental benefits. Adoption of a sustainable practice means that the farmer has accepted the idea as good and that he intends to include it in the ongoing program of land preparation, planting, and harvesting. In other words, adoption is the implementation and continued use of an agriculture practice. This is an important difference from trial or experimentation, because a farmer might try a sustainable practice and abandon that practice. Adoption of sustainable practices by farmers is the key to transforming agriculture into a long-term, sustainable system. How far sustainability can be achieved in a democracy depends greatly on farmers’ voluntary acceptance of sound land use practices. Individual decisions are shaped by the availability of technical information and the appropriate machinery, seeds, and other inputs necessary to implement sustainable agricultural practices. This paper reviews literature on the good agricultural practices that promote sustainable food security.

The issue of poverty and strategies to deal with it has occupied the ‘minds’ of various Governments in Nigeria before and after independence in 1960. Indeed the scourge of poverty has been the bane of the Countries of sub Saharan Africa for decades. Each country has tried to devise strategies and methods of dealing with the problem. Poverty is actually a world wide phenomenon hence; it has always attracted the attention of International Organizations like the United Nations and its subsidiary Organizations like the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF), and a host of others. The concern over poverty and the need to alleviate it, is predicated on the fact that it is a social phenomenon with multifarious negative consequences on the health of the people, the socio economic dimensions of the country and the totality of the productive capability and capacity of any country.

The prevention climatic changes induced by anthropological greenhouse gas emissions, is one of the of severe major challenges for the current and future generation of mankind hence this study investigates in providing a cheaper and cleaner fuel in burning from post harvesting agricultural wastes. Coal and wood have been the primary fuel used subsequently and produce lot of polluting gases like carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide which has consequences on health. The agriculture waste is bio degradable and decomposes/burns. Since waste can be a source of energy after mixing the waste material of different calorific value, the agriculture waste can be converted into fuel cakes or by modifying charcoal by destructive distillation process by using of effective carbonizer. The results obtained with multifuel (Agri charcoal) further stronger the idea of setting small power plants, dedicated to rural sector of India.

Significant amounts of research and development work on Photovoltaic solar cells generate electricity by receiving sun light or solar irradiance. But solar cell received heat from solar irradiance as well and this will reduced the efficiency of the solar cell so the solution for this was by adding a cooling system (air or water) to the photovoltaic panel. Photovoltaic/thermal technology has been done. Many innovative systems and products have been introduced while evaluated product’s quality by academics and professionals. Some theoretical models also offered that experimental data have been validated their appropriateness. Important parameters in designing have known. Purpose of this paper is give review of trend to development photovoltaic/ thermal technology.

A study on women’s involvement and their training needs in rice cultivation and in Chatra district of Jharkhand was studied in five selected villages one each from five selected blocks i.e. Kunda, Partappur, Simariya, Tandwa and Hunterganj covering 250 respondents. Results indicated that harvesting was the activity in which farm women were mostly involved followed by transplanting, weeding, seed selection and treatment, sowing and nursery raising and seed grain storage with weighted mean scores of 2.56, 2.57, 2.38, 2.25, 2.18, 1.96 and 1.37 respectively. Plant protection was rated first training need followed by seed and grain storage, land preparation, seed selection and treatment and sowing and nursery raising with weighted mean scores of 2.36, 2.24, 2.20, 2.08, 2.04, 2.01 respectively.

Vermicompost sample was produced by Eudrilus eugeniae in cowdung was collected from the Department of Biology, Gandhigram Rural Institute- Deemed University, Gandhigram. The sample was serially diluted and bacterial cultures were isolated and they were identified based on their characteristics as Micrococcus sp., Alcaligens sp., Tricoccus sp., Azomonas sp., and Paracaccus sp. These five bacterial isolates were subjected to screening for Indole acetic acid (IAA) production and all the bacterial colonies showed positive results for IAA production. Among the five isolates, Alcaligens sp. produced more amount of IAA (10µg/ml) when compared to all the other organisms. Hence Alcaligens sp was chosen for plant growth studies at 1 to 5 ml concentration. The isolate at 5 ml showed improved germination percentage of Vigna unguiculata seeds and it also showed improved shoot length (13.25 cm), root length (4.99 cm), number of leaves (5.0), chlorophyll content of leaves a-(0.0025 mg/g), b-(0.177 mg/g), total chlorophyll (1.351 mg/g), fresh weight (1.07 g) and dry weight (0.08 g) on the 7 day when compared to the control and the lower concentrations (1,2,3,4 and 5 ml).

In view of the place of biological parameters in defining soil health, many scientists of repute have developed methods of assessing environmental parameters one of which is soil health. Soil health is assessed from several angles: biological, chemical, physical, bearing in mind that the top and sub soils are the zones of plant growth and active flora and fauna activities. Biological parameters of the soil cannot do without reference to enzyme, humic acid and microbial activities. A lot of methods have been developed for their assessment and a lot of scientists have adopted and modified the methods with varying results. Each of them have additional benefits. There may be limitations but that is the basis of science. A big thank you to all the scientists living and dead who have shaped the scientific community and the world from their research and findings. All of them have been recognized globally directly as nobel laureates and indirectly through other honours by peer groups. This paper presents enzyme and microbial activities methods of assessment and their pros and cons.

India is the agriculture based country. Agricultural sector is playing vital role in Indian economy. Our ancient people completely depended on the agricultural harvesting. This paper is a basic implementation to bring Indian agricultural system to the world class standards. Paper is used to find the exact field condition. Irrigation by help of freshwater resources in agricultural areas has a crucial importance. Because of highly increasing demand for freshwater, optimal usage of water resources has been provided with greater extent by automation technology and its apparatus such as drip irrigation, sensors and remote control. Our paper aim is to control the wastage of water in the field by using the drip irrigation and also to provide exact controlling of field by atomizing the agricultural environment by using the components and building the necessary hardware. The humidity and temperature of plants are precisely monitored and controlled. By using drip irrigation the water will be maintained at the constant level i.e. the water will reach the roots by going drop by drop. Irrigation system controls valves by using automated controller to turn ON & OFF. This allows the farmer to apply the right amount of water at the right time, regardless of the availability of the labor to turn valves or motor ON & OFF. This reduces runoff over watering saturated soils avoid irrigating at the wrong time of the day. It improves crop performances and help in time saving in all the aspects. In this paper an ARM LPC2148 Microcontroller based drip irrigation mechanism is proposed, which is a real time feedback control system for monitoring and controlling all the activities of drip irrigation system more efficiently. GSM is used to inform the user about the exact field condition. The information is given on user request in form of SMS. Eg. GSM modem can be controlled by standard set of AT (Attention) commands. These commands can be used to control majority of the functions of GSM modem. GSM serves as an important part as it is responsible for controlling the irrigation on field and sends them to the receiver through coded signals. GSM operates through SMS’s and is the link between ARM processor and centralized unit. The drip method of irrigation has been found to have a significant impact on resources saving, cost of cultivation, yield of crops and farm profitability.

In this study, various Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) were developed to determine the economics indices for seed and grain corn production in Ardabil province, Iran. For this purpose, the data was collected by a face-to-face interview method from 144 corn farms during 2011 and analyzed. The results indicated that total energy input for seed and grain corn productions was about 45162.77 and 35198.11, respectively. The developed ANN was a multilayer perceptron (MLP) with six neurons in the input layer (human labor, machinery, diesel fuel, chemical fertilizer, chemicals, seed), one, two and three hidden layer(s) of various numbers of neurons and four neuron (BCR, P, TR, NR) in the output layer. The results of ANNs analyze showed that the best MLP network models for predicting economic indices in seed and grain corn production had (6-6-10-4) and (6-4-8-4) topologies, respectively. For these topologies, MSE, MAE and R2 calculated. The ANN approach appears to be a suitable method for modeling output energy, fuel consumption, CO2 emission, yield, and energy consumption.

Plants respond with changes in their pattern of gene expression and protein products when exposed to low temperatures. Thus ability to adapt has an impact on the distribution and survival of the plant, and on crop yields. Many species of tropical or subtropical origin are injured or killed by nonfreezing low temperatures, and exhibit various symptoms of chilling injury such as chlorosis, necrosis, or growth retardation. In contrast, chilling-tolerant species are able to grow at such cold temperatures. Conventional breeding methods have met with limited success in improving the cold tolerance of important crop plants involving inter-specific or inter-generic hybridization. Recent full-genome transcript profiling studies, in combination with mutational and transgenic plant analyses, have provided a snapshot of the complex transcriptional network that operates under cold stress. The changes in expression of hundreds of genes in response to cold temperatures are followed by increases in the levels of hundreds of metabolites, some of which are known to have protective effects against the damaging effects of cold stress. Various low temperature-inducible genes have been isolated from plants. Most appear to be involved in tolerance to cold stress and the expression of some of them is regulated by C-repeat/dehydration-responsive element binding (CBF/DREB1) transcription factors. Genetic analysis has revealed important roles for cellular metabolic signals, and for RNA splicing, export and secondary structure unwinding, in regulating cold-responsive gene expression and chilling and freezing tolerance. Numerous physiological and molecular changes occur during cold acclimation which reveals that the cold resistance is more complex than perceived and involves more than one pathway. The findings summarized in this review have shown potential practical applications for breeding cold tolerance in crop and horticultural plants suitable to temperate geographical locations.

An economic evaluation of crop and dairy production system study was taken up in the Erode district of Tamil Nadu, India to study the post-harvest losses in crop production system, milk losses in dairy production system, to analyse the factors influencing the post-harvest losses and milk losses and finally analyze the resource use efficiency and technical efficiency of crop and dairy production system. In crop production system, net income was higher in turmeric than sugarcane by 10.98 per cent. The gross income and net income was higher in foreign breed by 99.95 per cent and 79.24 per cent over local breed respectively and hence turmeric and foreign breed are more profitable in crop and dairy production system respectively. The post-harvest losses in turmeric production were 0.048 per cent of total production. Milk losses in dairy production system due to various diseases were 9.97 per cent in local breed and 13.34 per cent in foreign breed. The education and inadequate storage had significant positive influence on post-harvest losses. The milk fever, Mastitis and foot and mouth disease in local breed had influence on milk losses. In foreign breed, milk fever and Mastitis had significant positive influence on milk losses. In crop production system, the planting material, manures and fertilizer, irrigation and human labour were significant in turmeric production. In sugarcane production, planting material and irrigation were positively significant. In dairy production system, green fodder, dry fodder and human labor were significant in local breed. With respect to foreign breed, green fodder, dry fodder and concentrates were positively significant. The mean technical efficiency and scale efficiency of sugarcane and turmeric was almost similar in crop production system. In dairy production system, the mean technical efficiency and scale efficiency of foreign breed and local breed was almost similar. The policy advocacy is finally suggested for Agriculture Department, Animal Husbandry Department and Government for minimizing economic losses, for achieving efficiency in production systems and finally for sustainable agricultural development of the region.