Agriculture

The University of message and specific objectives of teaching, scientific research and community service, they play an important and significant role in the practice of scientific research. The scientific research of the most important pillars of universities, a standard measure of scientific and academic level. The first universities and the natural place to conduct research because of the large number of specialists from faculty members as well as provide search requirements of laboratories and equipment, and the necessary resources for scientific research data collection. The research aims to shed light on the reality of experiments fields in the College of Agriculture and the statement of efficiency usability fields experiments in scientific research and to highlight the shortcomings and weaknesses and their impact on the conduct of the research process of The perspective of professors of the Faculty of Agriculture the aim of identifying determine inhibiting factors and the factors that help in the development of efficient use of the fields and converted of research fields to the research and production for the purposes of development.

The study was carried out to evaluate various selected crops which were used as intercrops to control fruit drop in hot pepper (Capsicum frutescens). A Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) was used. There were six treatments and four replications. The treatments were control (pepper), Pepper-tomato, Pepper-mint, Pepper-citronella, Pepper-onion and Pepper-garden eggs intercrops. It was observed that there were significant differences between the mean total number and weight of harvested marketable pepper fruits but the other means were not significantly different for the other parameters that were observed. Pepper-citronella recorded the highest number of harvested pepper fruits. Pepper-tomato intercrop recorded the least number of harvested pepper fruits. Percentage fruit drop in the pepper fruit was high in all treatments.

Agriculture is the major economic activity in Kenya contributing up to 24 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (GoK, 2014). According to Odhiambo et al. (2004), agriculture is the most important sector in the Kenyan economy. This is because it provides employment opportunities, source of foreign exchange earner, and food provision besides offering linkages with the other sectors of the economy. Moreover, agriculture is among the six key sectors identified to deliver a 10 percent economic growth per annum as envisaged under the economic pillar of the Kenya Vision 2030. The country aims at promoting an innovative, commercially oriented, and modern agricultural sector (Kenya Vision 2030). Animal genetic resources are used to accommodate both short and long term benefits for improved livelihoods. Structured breeding programmes provide a key to increase production levels and product quality, increase productivity and cost efficiency, maintain genetic diversity and support the conservation and sustainable utilization of specific breeds. For sustainable breeding strategies to take place there is a need for long term planning and commitment. For conservation or improvement of a breed or population for a given purpose the choice of breeding strategy is determined by a number of factors and is giving the framework for design of more detailed breeding programmes for specific populations.

Fruits are important elements of a healthy, balanced diet, be it as part of a main meal or as a snack. The quest for ready-to-eat fruits has resulted in cut-fruits such as pawpaw, watermelon and pineapple in the Ghanaian fruit market. However, the safety and quality of these products cannot be guaranteed due to the mode of preparation and packaging. These products have longer shelf life when properly preserved and, therefore, assure all year round availability of fruits in different forms. The objective of this study was to assess consumer knowledge, perception and acceptance of fresh-cut fruits and irradiated fruits in Ghana. This was a cross-sectional study involving respondents in Accra (a cosmopolitan city). Information was collected by an open-ended questionnaires administration. The responses were coded and analyzed using SPSS Statistical Software Version 16. The results revealed that consumption of fruits and cut-fruits in Greater Accra is relatively high. It showed that 94.5 % of the respondents like fruits of all kinds. Mango was the most preferred (40.5 %) and 79 % of respondents preferred the seedling (local) mango to the grafted (exotic) variety. More tertiary educated people (48 %) consume fruits than others. More people (69 %) always buy cut-fruits and more males (63.5 %) patronize cut-fruits than females. People between the ages of 21 – 30 years patronize more cut-fruits and only 52 % of the respondents have heard about irradiated fruits, however, only 47 % would buy irradiated fruits because they are hygienic and safe. Others associated irradiation with radioactivity. The knowledge of fruits irradiation is very low in Ghana however; the consumption of fresh cut- fruits is high.

The study assessed the level of gender involvement in household farming decisions and identified constraints to women involvement in household farming decisions in Lafia Local Government Area, North-central Nigeria. Data were collected through structured questionnaire administered on sixty (60) farming households randomly selected for the study. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and factor analysis. The results showed that men dominated (with involvement rate of 79% on grand average) all aspects of household farming decisions (such as selection of farm enterprise, procurement of farm inputs, allocation of farm inputs, selling and storage of excess farm produce) except for household decisions concerning processing and consumption of farm produce dominated (73.5% on grand average) by females members of farm households. Poor personal linkages to socio-economic institutions, land holding constraint, women farming skill, household violence, traditional and cultural belief were constraints to women involvement in household farming decisions. It is recommended that extension activities be expanded to include sensitizing male household heads on need to involve their women in the household farming decisions for greater productivity and to enhance household food security.

The present study was conducted in three villages in three development blocks in Pratapgarh distrct U.P. to documents the constraints experienced by the mentha growers. The research results were grouped into technical, financial and social constraints. The study revealed that mentha cultivation are quite primitive and traditional, resulting low yield and poor quality of produce. It is evident from the study that lack of improved techniques of mentha cultivation, availability of quality seed, farm machinery, distillation plant, Procurement agency, market and related information, organized farmers are major constraints faced by the farmers. The cultivation of mentha becomes more difficult when growers are not getting credit facilities and are paying more rent for land.

After several promotional activities carried out by different stakeholders the improved rice production technologies have not reached the farmers field. A study was conducted to identify the constraints faced by farmers in adoption of the improved rice production technologies. The study was conducted in five purposively selected blocks of Chatra district. In five randomly selected, one each from the selected blocks, villages 40 rice growers were selected randomly as respondents for each village covering 200 respondents in the study. Constraints identified by the respondents were grouped into six categories i.e. ecological, technological extension – related, infrastructural, economic & socio- cultural constraints. Results indicated that undulated topography and gravelly soil (94.5%) high fertilizer requirement in HYVS (89%) fragmented and scattered holdings (94.5%) inadequate advice and guidance by the charge agents (41%), low price of produce (98%) and open grazing of cattle (92%) perceived to be important constraints which diminished the adoption of improved rice production technologies.

The study investigated constraints and extent of access to productive resources and agricultural services among women farmers in Anambra State, Nigeria. Specifically, it identified income generating activities of women farmers in the state, identified the productive resources and agricultural services available to them and determined the extent of availability of the resources and services and constraints to accessing the resources. Purposive random sampling technique was used to select a total of 120 women farmers. Data were collected with aid of a structured questionnaire. Data were analyzed using mean, percentages and frequencies. Results showed that majority (60%) of the respondents are married and a majority (50%) has formal education. It was further revealed that the respondents had diversified income generating activities with a majority engaging in processing of agricultural products (98.3%) and farming (95.8%). The results also showed that majority of the respondents indicated labour as the most available productive resource in the area. On the extent of access to productive resources, the result revealed that labour (x=3.0) and processing facilities (x = 2.50) are the accessible productive resources. Finally, the result revealed sharing of knowledge (x = 2.56) and marketing facilities (x = 2.98) as the only agricultural services accessible to the farmers. Constraints encountered lack of capital, poor electricity connection, lack of access roads, poor radio signals, illiteracy among others. It was recommended that the existing land ownership policies in the country should be reviewed to promote ownership by women farmers and extension education/visit be improved as well.

Crop-Benefit analysis was used to assess fresh fruit yield responses of two day-neutral okra varieties: NHAe 47-4 and LD 88-1-8 to nitrogen (N) fertilizer application in trials conducted over three years at Ado-Ekiti in the sub-humid agro-ecological zone of south-western Nigeria. Fruit yield increased with N application in all years and reflected in high returns at subsidized and unsubsidized fertilizer (urea) prices. Value-Cost ratio (VCR) was highest at 60 kg N.ha^-1 for the two varieties in 2007 and for NHAe 47-4 in 2008 but at 30 and 120 kg N.ha^-1 for LD 88-1-8 and NHAe 47-4, respectively in 2009. The current economic environment in 2010, characterized by higher producer prices due to nationwide inflationary pressure on food items and regime of high fertilizer prices from a deregulating market necessitated an assessment of the returns from the responses to application of subsidized and unsubsidized urea. Profitability of N application increased as VCR rose to 1.57 and 2.39 for NHAe 47-4 and LD 88-1-8 at 60 kg N.ha^-1. This 60 kg N.ha^-1 is the economic rate to recommend for fresh fruit production in sole okra.

Vegetation and soil management needs a holistic approach which is already devised into the state and transition model and other ecological, while abolished, models. But these models have some disadvantages and limitations that disable them for managerial purposes. Here in this paper, using a case study to prove the idea, another complementary state and transition model is introduced. This model is more comprehensive and gives managers a more wide view into ecological processes undergoing in a site.

Compatibility of implements with tractors has direct impact on quality of work (planting and tillage). To determine the degree of compatibility, data were collected from 310 tractor users throughout Kurdistan, West Azerbaijan, East Azerbaijan, Kermanshah and Hamadan provinces in Iran by random sampling method using Cochran’s formula. Each questionnaire sheet had six check boxes indicating different levels of satisfaction (excellent, very good, good, moderate, weak and very weak) with the values of 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1, respectively. Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.67 obtained for the questionnaires. The results showed that the slope of land had significantly negative effect on compatibility of tractors with the equipment. Also tillage and planting equipment were less compatible with MF240 tractor. MF285 tractor was incompatible with all the equipment used. On the other hand, MF399, because of its high traction capacity, observed to be the most compatible with equipment. Results also showed that the farmers' education had direct impact on compatibility between tractor and implements. Providing the farmers with more knowledge about the compatibility factors, draft and implement adjustments through CDs and manuals as well as short training courses may help to overcome tractor-implement incompatibility problems.

The entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana is a promising biocontrol agent against coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei in coffee. The fungus conidial survival was influenced by both environment and agrochemicals normally used to protect crop plants. The present study evaluates the fungitoxic effect of commonly used chemical insecticides (endosulfan, chlorpyriphos, dimethoate and quinalphos) and fungicides (bordeaux, hexaconazole and triadimefon) on germination, vegetative growth and sporulation of B. bassiana. The insecticides and fungicides were tested at three concentrations (Field Recommendation (FR), half FR, and twice FR). All the tested concentrations inhibited the germination (9.0-81.19% and 19.3-100%), vegetative growth (0.5-62.9% and 37.1-100%) and sporulation (7.0-99.9% and 99-100%) of B. bassiana by the insecticides and fungicides respectively, but dimethoate exhibited minimum inhibitory effect. Dimethoate showed better compatibility to B. bassiana in all the three concentrations. As dimethoate is safer to biological control agent, could be used as an integrated pest management in coffee.

Trials were carried out using five maize varieties in Ibadan, Oyo state Nigeria in 2010 and 2011 maize cropping seasons. The varieties were planted in a randomized complete block design of three replicates. The objective was to evaluate the relationship existing among various growth and yield components as they contribute to grain yield. The result showed that varieties differed significantly in days to 50% flowering, field weight and number of kernel per cob (P<0.05), leaf area, ear length and 1000 grain weight (P<0.01), plant height and grain yield/ha (P<0.001). ART98-SW5OB and Obatanpa were superior in almost all the agronomic traits evaluated while ART98-SW6 OB was least in plant height and produce flowers earlier than the other varieties. Years, variety and years of evaluation interaction were however not significantly different. Ear length correlated positively and strongly with plant height and number of kernels per cob (P<0.001). Plant height and other agronomical traits were positively associated with grain yield except days to 50% flowering and numbers of kernel per cob. Growth and yield components are related in one way or the other; hence selection for secondary yield traits that correlate positively with primary yield components is fundamental to the overall grain yield development in maize.

Iron deficiency chlorosis is a common problem for sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) grown on iron deficient calcareous soils. Iron is essential for chlorophyll synthesis and any deficiencies may hinder photosynthetic capabilities of the plant that may result in yield loss. Cultivar selection and/or proper management may reduce yield loss. The objective of this investigation was to identify the cultivars and determine the effect of ameliorative treatment for controlling iron deficiency chlorosis in sugarcane in Tamilnadu, India. A field experiment was conducted for fifteen sugarcane varieties with two treatments (control and amelioration). The leaf greenness was evaluated for chlorosis by SPAD chlorophyll meter readings and also using acetone extraction method. The metabolically active iron content of leaf was analysed by 1,10-orthophenanthroline extract. The ameliorated treatment was consistently better at reducing iron chlorosis scores and yield loss. The resistant genotypes had significantly lower chlorosis scores compared to the susceptible varieties. Iron deficiency chlorosis was adequately controlled by amelioration treatment and/or using resistant genotypes may be the more effective treatment for yield improvement.

The study was carried out for determine the amount of input- output energy used and indices of energy and economic of fattening farms under different farm sizes in Qazvin city of Iran. For this purpose the data were collected from 30 fattening farms. The surveyed farms were classified into three groups of small (less than 50 heads), medium (50 to 150 heads) and large farms (more than 150 heads).The total average energy input of 24003 MJ calf -1 was required for fattening farm. The share of feed by 75% of the total energy inputs was the highest energy input. This was followed by fossil fuels (16%) and young calf (4%), respectively. The energy use efficiency, energy productivity, Specific energy, and net energy were found as 0.009 (kg MJ-1), 114.8 (MJ kg-1) and -20553(MJ calf-1), respectively. According to the study results, the contribution of indirect energy was higher than that of direct energy; also the share of renewable energy was more than that of non-renewable energy. Economic analysis showed that total average cost of production was 909.8 ($ calf-1). The benefit-cost ratio and productivity were 1.1 and 0.22 (kg $-1), respectively. The results showed that medium farms in terms of economic and energy indexes lower position than the small and large farms. So, they should change their scale to achieve higher efficiency.

Twenty weaned rabbits of mixed sexes aged between 8 to 9 weeks were randomly allotted to five dietary treatments with four rabbits per treatment. Each rabbit was used as a replicate. Three tropical grasses and leaves from two forage plants were used to prepare the diets. The leaves were obtained from Myrianthus arboreus and Gmelina arborea two common forages and the tropical grasses incude Tridax procumbens, Pannicum maximum and Pennisetum purpureum. Parameters studied include average weekly feed intake, average weekly weight gain, feed conversion ratio and feed efficiency ratio. The study was carried out in the rabbit section of the Faculty of Agriculture Research and Teaching Farm of the Delta State University, Asaba Campus Delta State Nigeria. Significance was reported at 5% level of probability and the means were separated using Duncan's Multiple Range Test Procedure. Significant differences were observed for all parameters measured between all the test materials. Variations in feed intake and weight gain were observed and values obtained were within the ranges of reported values.

Trichoderma has been widely used to control R. Solani. However, there is need to evaluate the different mechanisms used to administer the biological control agent into the plant environment. A greenhouse experiment to compare the efficacy of three T. Harzianum application methods; seed bio-priming, seed coating and soil treatment to control R. solani in peas was conducted. The main objective of the study was to evaluate the efficacy of T. harzianum application methods for controlling root rot and damping off caused by R. solani in peas. There were significant differences (p<0.001) between different T. harzianum application methods in reducing pre and post emergence damping off. Seed biopriming recorded the lowest pre emergence damping off incidence of 2.64 % compared to 7.16 % recorded on untreated control. Seed coating had pre emergence damping off percentages and root rot severity scores of (4.22%; 1.87) respectively. Soil treatment recorded the highest population increase of T. harzianum (2.855 x 104 CFU) 6 weeks after sowing.

The production of wheat crop for the year 2013-14 is estimated to be 24.2 million tons against last year’s production of 23.4 million tons. The major reasons for this enhanced production were increase in support price from Rs.1050 to Rs.1200 per 40 Kg which encouraged improved seed usage and fertilizers. There was also better weather and comparatively more water available from the reservoirs. The target for wheat production for 2013-14 has been fixed at 25.0 million tons. The fertilizer has raised the expenses of the inorganic farmers, which are not, used in organic farming. Cash cost in case of organic and inorganic farming is Rs. 23053.00 and 25846.00 respectively. The non-cash cost of organic and inorganic are Rs.19389.65 and 18815.10 respectively. Total cost is the combination of cash and non-cash costs that is Rs.42442.65 and 44661.00 in organic and inorganic farming. Gross margin (GM) is obtained by subtracting the cash cost from the gross value of product. GM is Rs.33142.65 and 36182.00 in organic and inorganic farming system. Net income is obtained by subtracting the total cost from the gross value of product. It is Rs.13752.35 and Rs.17367.00 in organic and inorganic farming, respectively showing a difference of Rs.2615.35. The analysis shows that low net income in organic farming than the inorganic farming is due to the low yield and high labor cost in organic system. Secondly health and environmental costs are not included in the analysis, because in the study site farmers are unaware of these costs.

An important social impact assessment of an intervention is the extent to which the project/intervention has impacted positively on the welfare of the beneficiaries. To this end, a comparative assessment of the impact of National Fadama Development Project (NFDP) - 11 on the beneficiaries and non – beneficiaries was conducted. Two local governments (one each from benefiting and non – benefiting) state was selected into the study. Internationally acceptable measures (age for weight, age for height of children (girls) of 0 - 3 years) were collected from the benefiting and non – benefiting farmers. Questionnaires were administered on 100 purposively selected fadama famers from each of the local government to elicit information on their NFDP – II benefits and fadama practices. Average weights and heights of the sampled children and their respective standard deviations were: 13.56 ± 3.45(kg); 78.9 ± 0.99(cm) and 9.93 ± 2.54(kg); 61.6 ± 1.31(cm) for the benefiting and non - benefiting farmers. Statistical analysis of the data indicated that there are significant differences in the heights and the weights of the children of benefiting and non – benefiting farmers. When sampled data were compared with the modeled data from FAO, 2006, the results indicated that there is no significant difference in the weights and heights of all the children. The increased income and improved standard of living of the benefiting fadama farmers could be attributed NFDP - 11 interventions. While the findings of this study should be applied with caution, it has however provided the scientific basis for the continuation of the programme in the benefiting areas and the initiation of the programme in the non – benefiting areas.

Studies were carried out to assess the influence of organic and inorganic fertilizers on the performance of Solanum macrocarpon L. (African egg plant) in Ado Ekiti, Ekiti State Nigeria. Organic fertilizers (Poultry manure and cow dung) were applied at the rate of 150g per pot and the inorganic (NPK 20:15:15 and Urea) at 6g per pot to make a field equivalent of 8t ha¬-1 and 200kg ha-1 respectively. Poultry manure gave the best performance in terms of height, number of leaves, leaf area, shoot biomass, relative growth rate and fruit weight. The relative growth rate, number of leaves and plant height were similar in NPK and Urea applied pots but lower than those of poultry manure. The results obtain from this study indicated that poultry manure could be an alternative source of fertilizer to S. macrocarpon production in place of the inorganic NPK and Urea fertilizers. The study further suggests that poultry manure used for crop improvement is a means of turning waste to wealth in crop production. The leaves and fruits produced from poultry manure fertilized soil supports the current global campaigns for organic food production.

The Objectives of this study were to determine the general (GCA) and specific (SCA) combining abilities and heterosis of some cotton genotypes for yield, its components and fiber traits using line × tester mating design. Thirteen parents (ten lines and three testers) alongwith their thirty F1 crosses were studied in randomized complete block Design (RCBD) with three replications during 2016 at Sakha Agriculture Research Station, Kafr El- Sheikh Governorate, Egypt. Based on line x tester analysis, the variances due to genotypes, parents, crosses and parent vs cross exhibited significant differences (P<0.01) for most yield, yield component and fiber traits. The variances due to GCA of lines and testers, and SCA of line x tester interactions were highly significant for most studied traits, indicating the importance of both additive and non-additive gene actions in controlling these traits. The proportional contribution of line × tester was higher than individual contribution of lines and testers for most studied traits. The estimates of GCA and SCA effects revealed that the parents and some crosses were having desirable and significantly GCA and SCA effects, respectively. High mean performances and desirable GCA effects values were observed of lines Pima S6, Suvin, G.90, Aust. 12 and tester C.B.58 for most investigated traits, hence these parents can be used for generating superior cotton hybrids Significant correlation coefficients (P<0.05 or P<0.01) in positive direction were obtained between all possible pairs of F1 hybrids mean, SCA and heterosis. The best values of mean performances, SCA effects and heterosis were found in the combinations Suvin x G.86 and Aus.12 x C.B.58 for most yield and yield components, and the G.90 x C.B.58 and G.95 x G.86 for fiber traits. These crosses are considered the promising crossed to be used in breeding programs for produce hybrid cotton and improvement for these traits in Egypt.

10 parental lines of cowpea were crossed and evaluated to determine the genetic behaviour of days to flowering and maturity traits through a full diallel analysis. In all, there were 45 crosses, 45 reciprocals and 10 parents to make a total of 100 entries which were evaluated in two locations, Teaching and Research Farm, Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti, and College of Education Demonstration Secondary School Farm in the early season of 2011 using a Randomized Complete Block Design with two replications. Data were collected on plant height, days to first flowering, days to 50% flowering, and days to 50% podding. Results showed that there were significant differences among the entries (p<0.05) for all traits studied. The mean for days to 50% flowering ranged between 50.07 and 51.73 days, days to pod maturity varied from 58.77 to 64.24 days. The hybrid lines exhibited the earliest flowering and pod maturity traits among the entries. General Combining Ability (GCA) for most of the traits were significant. Only days to pod maturity were not significant for Specific Combining Ability (SCA) among the traits. P1, P4, P5 and P6 are identified to be the best general combiners for most of the characters while P1 x P4, P1 x P6, P4 x P2 and P9 x P5 are excellent specific combiners for earliness traits. Mid-parents heterosis (%) was high (280.47%) among the crosses and reciprocals. The ratio of GCA to SCA ranged from less than 1 for flowering intervals to 48 for days to 50% flowering which underscores the importance of additive effect and suggesting that reasonable progress can be made using selection procedure.

A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the influence of organic fertilizer application in the production of organic onion. The study was conducted in a fully converted organic field at CLSU RM-CARES using the following treatment; treatment 1 was the control or no fertilizer, treatment 2 was the organic fertilizer at 8 t/ha applied before transplanting, treatment 3 was the vermicast at 8 t/ha applied before transplanting, treatment 4 was combined organic fertilizer and vermicast at the same rate of 4 t/ha applied before transplanting, and the treatment 5 was combine organic fertilizer at 4 t/ha and vermicast at 4 t/ha, half of each fertilizer material was applied before transplanting and another half was applied 30 days after transplanting. Results revealed that combined organic fertilizer vermicast application as biofertilizer had no influence on the diameter size and weight of individual bulb after harvest. However, application of combined organic fertilizer and vermicast at the rate of 4 t/ha of each fertilizer materials applied before transplanting significantly increased the production of marketable bulb, yield per plot and computed yield per hectare. On the other hand, nitrogen and phosphorus uptake of onion was observed a comparable results to all fertilizers applied. Moreover, plants fertilized with combined organic fertilizer and vermicast at the same rate of 4 t/ha each of fertilizer materials applied before transplanting significantly obtained the highest potassium uptake with 2.36 t/ha . Follow up studies on the effect on growth and yield of combined fertilizer material should be conducted to confirm and further explain our findings.

The need for intensive germplasm collection to broaden the genetic base of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) breeding to safeguard the vulnerability and the rate at which wild oil palm are becoming extinct as these wild oil palms are very imperative. The paper highlights oil palm accessions that were collected from the Central Region of Ghana. Thirty seven (37) accessions were collected from seven (7) locations in the Central Region. Data on stem height, bunch weight, bunch length, bunch breadth, bunch depth, stalk weight, weight of ten fruits, weight of ten nuts, mesocarp to fruit ratio, fruit length, fruit diameter, nut diameter, kernel diameter, shell thickness and other qualitative traits were examined. The mean, co-efficient of variation and range of the individual traits, were statistically analysed using standard procedures. Differences in the qualitative traits were recorded with most of the oil palm accessions having nigrescens fruits. The Tenera (T) type recorded the highest mesocarp to fruit ratio of 63.8%. These prospected germplasm accessions are being germinated and raised for future planting in the germplasm fields of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (C.S.I.R) - Oil Palm Research Institute (OPRI) to be introduced for breeding programmes.

This work aims to study the collection field behavior of the most interesting banana and plantain cultivars for the populations surveyed in the province of Maniema. A 40 x 60 m collection field was installed in the experimental field of the Faculty of Agronomy of Kindu University, located on the Lwama 1 district. The spacings adopted were 3 x 3 m. The parameters collected for each cultivar were as follows: pseudostem length, neck diameter, number of leaves, leaf length and width, number of rejects, number of hands per diet, number of fingers / hand, finger circumference, finger length and diet weight. The results obtained showed that these cultivars have different vegetative and productive characteristics. The average values obtained were as follows: The length of the pseudostem varied from 120 cm to 351 cm; the neck diameter varies from 42.90 cm to 84 cm; the number of rejects varies from 2 (1.60) to (20.40); the number of hands varies from 1 cm to 8.50 cm; the number of finger / hand varies from 5.50 cm to 88.40 cm; the circumference / finger varies from 12 cm to 18.70 cm and finally the diet weight varies from 7 kg to 18.60 kg for all cultivars.

Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) is a destructive pathogen in banana cultivating areas worldwide. As the virus is located in the phloem tissue and its purification is difficult and gives low yield. Therefore, in the present study BBTV coat protein was bacterially cloned and expressed using recombinant DNA approach. The BBTV infected banana leaf samples were collected around Uttar Kannada district of Karnataka. Further, the total nucleic acid was extracted using dellaporta method. A 531bp PCR product containing coat protein coding region of BBTV was amplified using BBTVCPF and BBTVCPR primers and the amplified product was cloned into the pTZ57R/T and further sub-cloned in to the pQE30. After transformation in to JM 109 and M15 cells the clones were confirmed through PCR and sequencing. Amplification with expected size of 531bp and 100% homology with other isolates showed integrity of the clone. Further, the coat protein appeared to be expressed at 3hr after induction with 1mM IPTG. The expressed protein was analyzed through sodium-dodecyl sulphate-Poly acrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). A band of 21kDa on the gel confirmed that coat protein was really fused to the His-tag. Further, 10mg/liter of the coat protein were purified using His-tag purification kit (Genei).

The objective of this work is to provide breeders in the pig industry with technical and economic data that can be used for the proper functioning of a piggery. This is an analysis of pig production in the Province of Maniema in general, more precisely in the town of Kindu. The methodology uses surveys (transversal and retrospective) among producers targeting the profile of breeders, their practices, zootechnical and socio-economic performances. The majority of breeders are Catholic Christians, most of whom are employed and practice breeding as a secondary activity. They are 90% men. The pigsties are either semi-modern (6/10) or modern (4/10). The food is based on rice bran and corn flour which are used by all breeders. Fish meal is used by 80% of breeders and cassava by 70%. Large White pigs dominate the different farms. The average herd is 86 pigs. The age at first farrowing varies between 11 to 14 months and the average number of farrowings per year is two. The average numerical productivity per female per farrowing is 10 piglets. The age at weaning varies between 45 and 90 days. The dominant pathologies remain external parasitoses and digestive diseases causing diarrhea. These pathologies are present in all the farms visited. The farms display an average annual gross profit between 40 and 60 pigs/year depending on their size, based on 3600 FC/kg or 2.1 $ dollars per carcass. Once we can estimate that the farm generates a result of 2,400 $ to $3,600 dollars per year or $ 200 to $ 300 dollars per month in income for the family. Young sows are put into breeding at 10 or 12 months when their weight reaches 80 or 100 kg live weight. Litter size is 8-12 piglets born alive and 6-8 piglets are weaned on average. Females are mated on average two to three times during heat, until the sow refuses mating. Future breeders are sold at $ 40 to $ 70 for piglets 2 to 3 months old. Breeders sell their pigs to commission agents who act on their behalf and make group purchases from breeders before proceeding with slaughter. The slaughter and consumption of pigs is also done locally. The animals are purchased at a price of 3,600 FC per kg of carcass. Slaughtering takes place at the slaughterhouse after payment of a tax of 1,500 FC. Once the animals have been slaughtered, skinned and inspected, the carcass is then transported on the back of a cart or on a motorcycle taxi to be sold at the Kindu central market at a price of 4,500 FC to 5,000 FC/kg. The roasters, for their part, offer meat skewers or pieces of cooked pork to consumers at prices ranging from 1000 FC per skewer at the restaurant bar and 1000 FC or 2000 FC per piece of meat. This study shows that pig farming is a very profitable activity as long as it is well managed. The constraints remain linked to management, the quality of production and processing. Improvement strategies should focus on the organization, accountability and supervision of stakeholders for better management of production in the interest of the development of this breeding.

This present article highlights the influence of the cutting performed on samples of agricultural products as well as their nature of products on the assessment of their convective drying quality. Sweet potato and taro were used for the study. It emerges that the size of the cut plays an important role in the evaluation of mass transfers during convective drying. At 100 minutes of drying and a temperature of 70°C, cubes with dimensions of 1cm, 1.5cm, 2cm, and 2.5cm reached moisture content levels of 40wt.%, 60wt.%, 78wt.%, and 80wt.% of their initial moisture content, respectively. This trend generalizes: the larger the size, the slower the drying. Similarly, the shape slightly influences the transfer process. Furthermore, the experiments showed that at the same temperature and similar dimensions regardless of the cutting shape, taro exhibits greater resistance to transfers than sweet potato.

The application of 20t/ha OF in each treatment supplemented with FE, in different frequencies of application resulted to higher yield as compared with control. Also, continued application of solid organic fertilizer in the soil, markedly improved all the soil properties after each cropping. Labor cost in land preparation and weeding were also reduced in different treatments with 20 t/ha + FE frequency. FE supplementation to organic solid fertilizer relatively reduced insect pest population and incidence of diseases

Salt stress as a major adverse factor can lower leaf water potential, leading to reduced turgor and some other responses, and ultimately lower crop productivity in arid and semi arid zones. To better understand salt stress responses in crop plants, we compared effects of salinity stress on growth, chlorophyll content and osmotic components in cresses that were grown in controlled environment in Hoagland nutrient solution containing 0, 5o, 100, 150 and 200 mM NaCl, respectively. Proline, soluble carbohydrates, chlorophyll ‘a, b’ and carotenes of leaves were determined 30 days after initiation of salinity stress. The results reveal that salinity caused significant decreases in growth of cress plants as measured by fresh weight. By increasing NaCl levels from 0 to 200 mM, the content of chlorophyll a and b, and carotenes reduced. Maximum reduction was observed at 200 mM of NaCl. Mean values of data showed that Lepidium sativum had the maximum reduction of chlorophyll a and b, and carotenes under salinity stress. In this study, salinity had no significant effect on soluble carbohydrate but the proline content varied among the cresses whether the plants were grown with or without salinity stress.

Mineral nutrient Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Calcium showed increasing trends with increasing nematode inoculum. However, Nitrogen and Phosphorus showed significant increase at 100 nematodes and above per pot where as Ca increase significantly at 10 nematodes and above levels per pot .Potassium and Magnesium did not showed inconsistent trends, more over Mg declined at higher nematode inoculum .Meloidogyne incognita increased macro nutrient levels in roots which left adverse impact on plant physiology.

Kashan playa, Located in the west of Central Desert of Iran, has been subjected to severe desertification problems. Most of these problems are due to human activities, overgrazing, sand dune mobility, soil salinity and ground water depletion. Monitoring desertification, land degradation and land cover requires rapid and accurate procedures. Remotely sensed satellite technology allows land degradation processes to be monitored over time. Two Landsat TM/ETM+ satellite images for 12 years period (1990-2002) with field observations were provided basic information for mapping of the extend and monitoring of the Kashan playa in central desert of Iran. Several change detection techniques such as image differencing, vegetation change analysis, principal component analysis and classification comparison have been applied to the data. Maximum Likelihood classification analysis showed a kappa coefficient accuracy of 86% and 82% for the TM and ETM+ images. Results revealed that about 35 % of the study area mostly salty lands and fixed sand dune has been rapidly changed. The overall rate changes of the desert lands and vegetation are about 7275 and 62 ha year^-1 respectively.

The trail was conducted from March 11- 17 May 2014 in the University of Gondar forage development garden. Water diluted Cattle Urine technology was examined for the current livestock rise vs feed shortage particularly in the dry season of the year. With the aim of improving the biomass yield of Maize (Zea mays L.). The used land was beforehand Elephant grass cultivated garden to reduce the residual effect of the soil. To address the aims 2m x10m trail was examined for 65 days; in all eight treatments each with three replications; the seed were local and traditionally used by farmers purchased and used to germinate. The seed were socked in water for 24 hours and germination was seen at six days of sowing. Treatments (T) were 10:1, 8:1, 6:1, 4:1, 2:1, and 1:1 (water: urine) ratio as well as Urea to DAP (Positive control) and the last with no urine, DAP & Urea fertilizer to (negative control).Treatments (Ts) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7and 8 each with three replications used respectively. Maize plant height in cm was 213.83; 199.39; 183.28; 181.38; 181.33; 166.28; 128.83 and 80.07 from 1 to 8 (Ts) respectively. Maize plant 2mx10m Biomass Yield in kg was 55; 38; 32; 31.33; 29.33; 22.67; 5.67; and 4.17 from 1 to 8 (Ts) respectively. The average over all treatments (Ts) maize plant estimated Biomass Yield in tons/ha was 82.5; 57; 48; 47;44; 34; 8.2; and 6.25 (Ts) respectively.. What has been observed from the trail was that; more diluted water to Urine ratio T1 (10:1) had much improved maize biomass yield; than the rest of treatments even from positive control trials. In the positive control trial drop-down biomass yield was pragmatic; this might be due to firing effect of the inorganic fertilizers; hence; jog-drop-watering was used that might not be sufficient enough to dilute like that of rainy water and causes to burn the roots. The harvested maize plant fodder was 100 percent palatable in feeding dairy cows. In conclusion ten parts of water with one part of cattle urine Technology can boost maize biomass yield. Urine collection method and storage technique to be further studied to exploit the cattle urine as nitrogen source is suggested.

This study analysed the efficiency of resource use in cassava production in Ayedaade Local Government Area of Osun State, Nigeria. It focused on the socio-economic characteristics of cassava farmers, input-output relationship and the efficiency of resource use in cassava production. Data were collected from a random sampling of 120 cassava farmers using pre-tested questionnaire. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics, regression technique and stochastic frontier analysis (SFA). Result showed that the average age of the respondents was 49 years;average year of schooling was 7 and average households’ size consistsof 7 members. The result further revealed that the average farm size of the respondents was 4.59 hectares. The double-Log function of the multiple regression analysis gave best fit with R2 of 92.3% and it indicated that farm size, hired labour used, quantity of herbicides and fertilizer used significantly influenced cassava output. For the efficiency analysis, farm size (ha), cost of factor input and chemicals (fertilizers and herbicides) used per hectares were the major determinants of farm level efficiency among the cassava farm households in the study area.

Palm Kernel Oil Residue (PKOR) is a waste product obtained after extracting oil from palm kernel by cottage industries. The residue is dumped at processing sites and the stench that emanates from the oxidizing product, causes nuisance to processors and nearby residents. Animal scientists are advocating the use of the fresh product as energy resource in broiler rations. This study was therefore conducted to determine the effects of partial replacement of maize in broiler rations with PKOR, on carcass parameters and sensory characteristics of broiler chicken. A total of 80 birds (5 from each treatment) were randomly selected from 160 birds fed diets containing 0% (control), 2.5%, 5.0%, 7.5%, 10%, 12.5%, 15% and 17.5% PKOR. At maturity (8 weeks old), the birds were slaughtered, and hot carcass and viscera weights were taken. Carcasses were sectioned into primal cuts after 24-hour chilling, and each part was weighed. The breast muscles were grilled for sensory evaluation. Proximate composition, ultimate pH (pHu) and peroxide value of the muscles were determined. Data obtained were analyzed using the General Linear Model of ANOVA component of Minitab software. The results indicate that PKOR inclusion up to 17.5% in broiler rations has no significant (p>0.05) effects on carcass parameters and sensory characteristics of the meat. Crude protein and fat contents of the carcasses were not significantly (p>0.05) different. However, PKOR inclusions beyond 7.5% significantly (p<0.001) increased the moisture content of the muscles. Ultimate pH (pH after 24hours of slaughter) and peroxide value after 7 days in storage were not significantly affected by the use of PKOR. The study indicated that farmers can include PKOR up to 17.5% in broiler rations without adverse effects on the carcass and sensory characteristics of the meat.

The effect of Indomie Noodle Waste Meal (IWM) based diet of the haematology and serum biochemistry of Broiler Finisher was investigated. One hundred and fifty unsexed Hypecco strain of Broilers were randomly allotted into five Isocaloric and Isonitrogenous dietary groups with graded levels of IWM to replace maize on weight basis in a Completely Randomised Design(CRD).Treatment 1 (T1),T2,T3,T4 and T5 contained IW at 0%,25%,50%,75% and 100% respectively. The experiment lasted for five weeks (5th -10th week). Dietary treatment started at 5th week of age and blood collection started at the onset of the dietary treatment and weekly thereafter. Haematological parameters investigated were Haemoglobin (Hb) concentration, Packed Cell Volume (PCV), White Blood Cells (WBC), Red Blood Cells (RBC) while the erythrocyte indices were calculated. Serum metabolites analysed for were Total Protein (TP), Albumin, Globulin, Uric acid, Calcium, Glucose, Creatinine, Bilirubin and Cholesterol. Hb, PCV and the erythrocyte indices were significantly (p<0.05) lowered by the IWM inclusion but not adversely while serum TP, Albumin, Globulin, Calcium and Cholesterol were significantly (p<0.05) elevated with the level of IWM inclusion.IWM can be used to replace maize in the diet of Broiler finisher chickens the level of which must not exceed 50% to avoid higher serum cholesterol level.

Ecological problems created by chemical insect control methods and their relevance to human health are receiving serious attention everywhere. Various pathogens, including viruses, protozoa, fungi and nematodes can be used to regulate pest population. Biological control of pests and vectors has been studied to a limited extent for many years with several notable successes, of which microbiological control is one aspect. The development of insecticide resistance in pest and vector population, the damage caused to non-target organisms and the realization of other environmental hazards of chemical insecticides have led to an increasing interest in biological, including microbiological control methods. Biopesticides are very effective in the agricultural pest control without causing serious harm to ecological chain or worsening environmental pollution. There is a requirement to develop alternatives to chemical pesticides for crop protection, due to the evolution of pesticide resistance in some pest species and concerns about the safety of chemical residues. One solution is the use of biopesticides (pest control agents based on living organisms) as an alternative in food production. The aim of this paper was to improve understanding of the environmental and regulatory sustainability of biopesticides as alternatives to chemical pesticides for crop protection. This paper reports on categories of biopesticides, biological control of aflatoxin, production of biopesticides using engineering techniques and its development.

Subterranean termites Odontotermes sp. and Trinervieus sp. modify the soil properties through their mound- building activities, subterranean galleries, storage chambers, aggregate formation, aeration, organic content and soil fertility. Gut of subterranean termites are structured habitats with numerous microniches created by a combination of host and microbial activities with rich population of diazotrophs. The Azotobacter isolates of Odontotermes sp. and Trinervieus sp. worker caste showed a positive response in the production of enzyme dehydrogenase and biological exopolysaccharide. Biological exopolysaccharide producers influence soil quality cum plant growth increasing agricultural productivity.

Biofertilzers are substances obtained from living microorganisms with the potential to supply crops with useful nutrients. Commonly used Biofertilizers supply nitrogen and phosphorus, and these nutrients are the most limiting ones in Sub-Saharan African. Nitrogen has a higher leaching capacity and thus more losses are experienced in agriculture than what is up taken by crops for growth while P sources are getting depleted. Despite many soils lacking these elements, the peasant farmers cannot afford their high cost. On the other hand, if supplied in higher amounts, lead to pollution of ground and surface bodies and eutrophication in the water bodies in the catchment areas. Biofertilizers are therefore considered to be eco-friendly and cost effective. These micro-organisms once inoculated in the soil show different modes of action that promote nutrient availability to crops. These mechanisms include; scavenging for nutrients from soil layers, solubilization of some inorganic compounds, and production of growth promoting metabolites, decomposition, and fixation of the free nitrogen from the atmosphere. However, the use of these biofertilizers has different challenges which may contribute for low adoption by farmers. The review therefore seeks to understand mode of application, mechanisms of plant uptake and the reasons that dissuade farmers from adopt these noble techniques.

Studies on pathogenecity of Meloidogyne incognita on Green gram, Phaseolus aureus were carried out in relation to different concentration of Azolla pinnata, a biofertilizer with reference to growth parameters of host plant and reproductive parameters of nematode pathogen. Amendments of Azolla resulted reduction in nematode infection and increment in growth characteristics of host plant. Azolla treated plants showed excessive shoot and root growth over infected untreated control plants. The growth increment was directly proportional to the dosage of Azolla amendments Reproductive parameters studied were also significantly affected by Azolla treatment. A progressive reduction in root – knot index, number of egg masses, eggs/egg mass, soil population and reproductive factor was recorded in different concentration of Azolla treatment. Alteration in protein content of plant tissue in response to Azolla treatment reveals that plants were put up resistance against nematode infection.

The study was conducted to assess possibility of predicting body weight on the basis of body measurement in crossbred Yoruba Ecotype in order to provide further information leading to their improvement. The genotype was made up of Yoruba Ecotype Chicken (FEC) and Dominant Black (DB). Mating type resulted from the crossing were (DB x DB), (DB x YE) and (YE x YE). Data were collected on Body Weight (BG), Breast Girth (BG), Body Length (BDL), Kneel Length (KL), Neck Length (NL), Shank Length (SL), Wing Length (WL) and Beak Length (BKL) were measured individually on adult progenies resulted from the crosses. The measurements were taken with aid of weighing scale and simple measuring tape. The General Linear Model (GLM) of the Statistical Analysis System (SAS) was used for the analysis of the data generated. Coefficient of determination (R2) for all the traits were generally positive and significant (P < 0.05), highest value was obtained for DB x DB followed by DB x YE and least value was obtained for YE x YE. The value ranged from 0.88 – 0.98 in DB x DB, 0.36 – 0.97 in DB x YE and 0.86 – 0.95 in YE x YE. BG gave highest coefficient of determination across the genotypes; BG (0.98, 0.97, 0.95), followed by SL (0.94, 0.97, 0.95) and least value were observed in BKL (0.56, 0.365 and 0.46) for (DB x DB), (DB x YE) and (YE x YE) respectively. Conclusively, the result indicated that significant amount of improvement can be achieved through continuous selection and breeding of the genotypes involved in this study

The bedrock of agricultural development in developing countries of sub-saharan Africa is rural development, without which all efforts at agricultural development will be futile. Agricultural development can only be attained if necessary rural infrastructural facilities are adequately provided in rural areas. This study assessed the availability of rural infrastructural facilities and its effect on agricultural productivity of rural dwellers in Abeokuta North local government area of Ogun state. Interview schedule was used to elicit information from 120 rural dwellers from six rural communities. Information obtained was subjected to descriptive and inferential statistics. Availability of seven rural infrastructural facilities was assessed. The results showed that roads were available to all the respondents while electricity (70.83%) and schools (83.33%) were available to majority of the respondents. Majority of the rural dwellers reported the proper functioning of roads (66.67%) and schools (82%) while partial functioning was recorded for electricity (60%), portable water (50%) and storage facilities (66.67%). The study concludes that sustainable rural development is a function of the availability and accessibility of rural infrastructural facilities to rural dwellers who are mainly small scale farmers. It was recommended that government should make provision for infrastructural facilities in rural areas of the local government.

The correlation and path coefficient analysis among seed yield and its components in pigeonpea were worked out in 25 erect and 25 semi spreading genotypes separately during 2007-08. Results of the correlation coefficient analysis revealed that seed yield plant^-1 was positively correlated with seeds plant^-1 in erect group whereas, pod clusters plant^-1, pods plant^-1 and 100 seed weight in semi-spreading group. Path coefficient analysis of various characters towards seed yield indicated that the maximum positive direct effect on seed yield was exhibited by seeds plant^-1 in erect group and days to 50% flowering in semi-spreading group. Whereas, path coefficients for 100 seed weight revealed the maximum positive direct effect due to days to 50% flowering in erect group and days to flower initiation in semi-spreading group.

The experiment was conducted to study the effect of varying plant population of two sorghum cultivars on growth and yield at three sites(Degain,Tendeli 8 and Tendeli 12) within the Gash delta Eastern Sudan , during 2014/15 and 2016/17) seasons. The RCBD design used for split-split plot trail. The treatments include two cultivars (Tabat andAklamoi) and three planting densities spacing within the row of 30, 45 and 60 cm between holes. Correlation analysis technique has been used for finding association between agronomic characters in the three sites. Generally the mean number of tillers, phonology, seeds/panicle, panicle length and 100-seed weight had positive strong significant correlation with plant height, and phonological attributes but they had moderate positive correlation with LAI, panicles/m2 and grain yield/ha. 100-Seed weight and panicle length were positively correlated with all characters except stem diameter, panicles/m2 and grain yield/ha. Likewise, LAI and number of tillers had significant and positive correlation with all characters. Grain yield per hectare was positively and significantly correlated with most of the studied traits. Results of analysis revealed significant and positive correlation among the variables and showed that these variables could play a vital role in increasing yield of sorghum hybrid.

Sugarcane is one of the most important major economic plants under cultivation in Iran. Heavy equipment and the intensive use of machinery can cause to soil compaction in sugarcane fields. In order to studying quantity of compaction in soil depth in two ages of ratoon 3rd and 6th, cone penetrometer was used for soil resistance measurements was conducted in 45 km south of Khuzestan province Amir kabir Agro-industry (31º03´N, 48º14´E) which has total area 12000 hectare which most of time 9500 hectare is under cultivation. Values were determined by using variograms maps of variable produced by kriging technique. Geostatistical software (GS+5.1, 2001; Gamma Design Software) was used to construct semivariograms and spatial structure analysis for variables fields. results showed differences were found both in soil depth and percentage of soil penetrometer resistance values ? 2 MPa and results shows differences between 61-80cm soil depth in furrows of 3rd and 6th ratoon are very obvious than 0-61cm of soil depth. In 61-80 cm of soil depth resistance in both ratoon field have increased and usage of mechanical loosening techniques subsoiling to remove soil compaction is necessary. In general combination of geostatics data with primary analysis can assist agricultural mechanization studies field and scientists through a previous identification of degraded zones within the field (e.g. block kriging) and management methods involved in slightly areas.

The cactus plant (Beles) grows profusely in Ethiopia and has adapted perfectly to the arid zones of the country characterized by droughty conditions, erratic rainfall, and poor soils subject to erosion. Cactus can be used for several purposes like sources of food, feed, as wind break, fence for crop and soil conservation for the people of the area. Although it is an important fruit and forage plant, there is no clear cut information about its current status, utilization, income contribution and marketing constraints in Bale Zone, South Eastern Ethiopia. To this end, the objective of this research was to assess the Current status, utilization, income contribution and marketing constraints of Cactus pear (Opuntia spp.) in selected districts of Bale Zone. In this study, three districts, namely, Sinana, Agarfa and Gasera were purposively selected based on their potential in cactus production and utilization. In addition, two kebeles from each district were selected purposefully based on their potential in cactus production. A total of 400 Cactus Grower and Non grower Households were selected to achieve the objectives of the study. Both qualitative and quantitative types of data were collected from sampled households. The quantitative type of data gathered from the respondents was analyzed using SPSS 20 versions whereas the data generated from group discussion and key informant interview were narrated and interpreted in the form of word. The descriptive result of the study indicated that Cactus feeding management includes the practices of cutting, scrubbing and chopping of young cladodes from branches of the stand for their animals and grazing. Regarding Cactus utilization in the study districts, farmers uses cactus pear for consumption (18.4%), live fence for crop field (13.7%), soil conservation (13.2%), and backyard live fence, (10.8%), for food security motive (9.9%), for forage (9.4%) and for wind break (8.5%) in the entire cactus growing areas of the study districts. Despite the fact that the vast majority of the respondents which accounts 61.3. % of the cactus growers reports they get unreasonable price from the sale of cactus due to lack access to potential market and low quality Cactus production, they obtained an average of 1007.9 Ethiopian Birr per annum. The study revealed that the income obtained from Cactus production was benefited 30.7% of farmers to cover their domestic consumables and purchase closes for their children. Also about 15.6% and 11.3% of the respondents were used the income obtained from the sale of cactus to cover costs of sending children to school and purchase improved crop varieties respectively. Regarding marketing constraints, the farmers indicated that Absence of Transportation facilities (20.3%), absence of market place (12.3%), low bargaining power (15.1%), perishability problem (17%), fluctuation of market price (9.4%) and availability of illegal brokers (14.2%) are the major problems they faces while selling their produce to the market. Regarding the income share of cactus grower and non grower Households it was found that the annual average income earned by cactus owner households were 13,910.6 birr whereas 12,371.3 birr for non cactus grower households with maximum earnings of up to Birr 30, 900 for non cactus grower and 35,960 for cactus grower households. Econometric result also reveals that the “average treatment effect on the treated” (ATT) for household income suggested, due to pure effect of cactus, the cactus owners obtain 1433.2049 birr of total income higher than non-owners; among which the mean difference of income between these two group is statistically significant at 5% probability level after matching. Considering the above mentioned fact, local government and other development partners should improve Access to market for cactus fruit so that farmers can get the best benefits from the cultivation of the crop.

In this study a non–parametric method of data envelopment analysis (DEA) was applied to analyze the energy efficiency and its optimization for garlic producers of Guilan province, Iran. The initial data were collected from 60 farmers using face-to-face questionnaire method in the villages of the Langroud city in the mentioned province. For garlic production processing, there was seven input energy (including human labor, machinery, diesel fuel, chemical fertilizers, seed, biocides and farmyard manure) and one output energy (including garlic yield). For applying DEA method, we use of two methods covering CCR and BCC models. The results of these models indicated that 18 and 43 units was efficient as technical and pure technical efficiency, respectively. Also, the scale efficiency score of 18 units was one in the studied area. The average of technical, pure technical and scale efficiency scores was computed as 0.847, 0.940 and 0.896, respectively. Moreover, the total energy use can be reduced about 6552 MJ ha?1 comparing present condition (with 17.81% difference). The highest difference between optimum and present condition was found in diesel fuel and seed with 19.88% for both of them. The chemical fertilizers (with 46.83%) and diesel fuel (with 17.98%) had the highest share of total energy saving in garlic production by DEA approach, respectively.

An on farm trial (OFT) was conducted during the year 2013 and 2014 to identify a suitable variety in upland situation through direct seeding in bio-physical and socio-economic condition of Chatra district. Experiment was conducted in Mardanpur village of Chatra block of Chatra district of Jharkhand where NICRA Project is under operation. The trial was designed in randomized block design consisting of 20 replications with five technological options i.e. TO1 : Farmers variety (Motkagora) with farmer practice N30P20K0, TO2 : Vandana with improved practice N40P20K20, TO3 : Anjali with improved practice N40P20K20, TO4 : Virendra with improved practice N40P20K20 and TO5 : CR-40 with improved practice N40P20K20. Farmer’s preference was also measured through a 5 points rating scale. Results indicated that TO3 i.e. improved variety Anjali with N40P20K20 under direct seeded condition in rain-fed Tar-III was found most suitable followed by TO4- Virendra with improved practice N40P20K20 and TO2 Vandana with improved practice N40P20K20 .

The presence of heavy metal residues in food products is a potential hazard to humans and animals as these metals cannot be degraded and stay permanently in the environment hence there is a need to ascertain the safety of these products for human consumption. The concentration of heavy metal residues in meat, milk and cheese were assessed in three locations in Ondo State. A total number of 120 animals (comprising 30 cows and 90 bulls) and 30 cheese samples were sampled for the investigation. The samples were digested with concentrated nitric acid and the resulting solutions were analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) for lead, copper, zinc, cadmium and chromium. The result revealed that the concentration of each metal was significantly (P < 0.05) different due to the location. The results were compared with Maximum Recommended Limit (MRL) as set by FAO. The cadmium concentration in the kidney samples obtained from Owo has a mean concentration level of 1.23mg/kg, which is above those collected from Ondo (0.53mg/kg). However, Cadmium was not detected in kidney samples from Akure. Chromium concentration was high in kidney samples from Ondo and Owo with values of 1.11 and 1.21mg/kg respectively than those recorded in Akure (0.31mg/kg). The mean level of copper in skeletal muscle from Akure (3.17kg/kg) was higher when compared with the 2 other locations (Ondo 1.48mg/kg; Owo 1.82mg/kg). The mean concentration of lead in skeletal muscle (2.09mg/kg) and kidney samples (0.89mg/kg) were significantly higher than liver samples (0.78mg/kg). Of these skeletal muscle, kidney and liver samples, 100%, 46.7%, 73.3% exceeded the MRL by FAO respectively. For cadmium, the result showed that kidney samples of slaughtered cattle contained a mean value of 0.59mg/kg. Also, the concentration of zinc in skeletal muscle and liver of slaughtered cattle were 37.65and 50.55mg/kg out of which 36.7% and 43.3% exceeded the MRL by FAO for skeletal muscle and liver respectively. The mean concentration of chromium is higher in kidney samples (0.88mg/kg) than skeletal muscle (0.77mg/kg and liver (0.83mg/kg). Of these skeletal muscle, kidney and liver samples, 16.7%, 36.7%, 20% exceeded the MRL as set by FAO respectively. Copper mean concentration was higher in liver samples (20.57mg/kg) of which 100% of liver samples exceeded MRL by FAO.